World War II Battle of Crete

The Battle of Crete was fought from May 20 to June 1, 1941, during World War II (1939 to 1945).  It saw the Germans make large-scale use of paratroopers during the invasion.  Though a victory, the Battle of Crete saw these forces sustain such high losses that they were not used again by the Germans. Fast Facts: Battle of Crete Dates: May 20 to June 1, 1941, during World War II (1939-1945).  Ã‚  Allies Army and CommandersMajor General Bernard FreybergAdmiral Sir Andrew CunninghamApprox. 40,000 menAxis Army and CommandersMajor General Kurt StudentApprox. 31,700 men Background Having swept through Greece in April 1940, German forces began preparing for the invasion of Crete. This operation was championed by the Luftwaffe as the Wehrmacht sought to avoid further engagements prior to commencing the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) in June. Pushing forward a plan calling for the mass use of airborne forces, the Luftwaffe gained support from a wary Adolf Hitler. Planning for the invasion was permitted to move forward with the restrictions that it does not interfere with Barbarossa and that it utilizes forces already in the region. Planning Operation Mercury Dubbed Operation Mercury, the invasion plan called for Major General Kurt Students XI Fliegerkorps to land paratroopers and glider troops at key points along Cretes northern shore, to be followed by the 5th Mountain Division which would be airlifted into captured airfields. Students attack force planned to land the bulk of its men near Maleme in the west, with smaller formations dropping near Rethymnon and Heraklion to the east. The focus on Maleme was the result of its large airfield and that the attack force could be covered by Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters flying from the mainland. Defending Crete As the Germans moved forward with invasion preparations, Major General Bernard Freyberg, VC worked to improve Cretes defenses. A New Zealander, Freyberg possessed a force consisting of around 40,000 British Commonwealth and Greek soldiers. Though a large force, approximately 10,000 lacked weapons, and heavy equipment were scarce. In May, Freyberg was informed via Ultra radio intercepts that the Germans were planning an airborne invasion. Though he shifted many of his troops to guard the northern airfields, intelligence also suggested that there would be a seaborne element. As a result, Freyberg was forced to deploy troops along the coast that could have been used elsewhere. In preparation for the invasion, the Luftwaffe began a concerted campaign to drive the Royal Air Force from Crete and establish air superiority over the battlefield. These efforts proved successful as British aircraft were withdrawn to Egypt. Though German intelligence wrongly estimated the islands defenders to only number around 5,000, the theater commander Colonel General Alexander Là ¶hr elected to retain the 6th Mountain Division at Athens as a reserve force. Opening Attacks On the morning of May 20, 1941, Students aircraft began arriving over their drop zones. Departing their aircraft, the German paratroopers met fierce resistance upon landing. Their situation was worsened by German airborne doctrine, which called for their personal weapons to be dropped in a separate container. Armed with only pistols and knives, many German paratroopers were cut down as they moved to recover their rifles. Beginning around 8:00 AM, New Zealand forces defending Maleme airfield inflicted staggering losses on the Germans. Those Germans arriving by glider fared little better as they immediately came under attack as they left their aircraft. While attacks against Maleme airfield were repulsed, the Germans succeeded in forming defensive positions to the west and east towards Chania. As the day progressed, German forces landed near Rethymnon and Heraklion. As in the west, losses during the opening engagements were high. Rallying, German forces near Heraklion managed to penetrate the city but were driven back by Greek troops. Near Maleme, German troops gathered and began attacks against Hill 107, which dominated the airfield. An Error at Maleme Though the New Zealanders were able to hold the hill through the day, an error led to their being withdrawn during the night. As a result, the Germans occupied the hill and swiftly gained control of the airfield. This permitted the arrival of elements of the 5th Mountain Division though Allied forces heavily shelled the airfield, causing significant losses in aircraft and men. As fighting continued ashore on May 21, the Royal Navy successfully dispersed a reinforcement convoy that night. Quickly understanding the full importance of Maleme, Freyberg ordered attacks against Hill 107 that night. A Long Retreat These were unable to dislodge the Germans and the Allies fell back. With the situation desperate, King George II of Greece was moved across the island and evacuated to Egypt. On the waves, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham worked tirelessly to prevent enemy reinforcements from arriving by sea, though he took increasingly heavy losses from German aircraft. Despite these efforts, the Germans steadily moved men to the island through the air. As a result, Freybergs forces began a slow fighting retreat towards the southern coast of Crete. Though aided by the arrival of a commando force under Colonel Robert Laycock, the Allies were unable to turn the tide of the battle. Recognizing the battle as lost, the leadership in London instructed Freyberg to evacuate the island on May 27. Ordering troops towards the southern ports, he directed other units to hold open key roads south and prevent the Germans from interfering. In one notable stand, the 8th Greek Regiment held back the Germans at Alikianos for a week, allowing Allied forces to move to the port of Sphakia. The 28th (Maori) Battalion also performed heroically in covering the withdraw. Determined that the Royal Navy would rescue the men on Crete, Cunningham pushed forward despite concerns that he might sustain heavy losses. In response to this criticism, he famously responded, It takes three years to build a ship, it takes three centuries to build a tradition. During the course of the evacuation, around 16,000 men were rescued from Crete, with the bulk embarking at Sphakia. Under increasing pressure, the 5,000 men protecting the port were forced to surrender on June 1. Of those left behind, many took to the hills to fight as guerillas. Aftermath In the fighting for Crete, the Allies suffered around 4,000 killed, 1,900 wounded, and 17,000 captured. The campaign also cost the Royal Navy 9 ships sunk and 18 damaged. German losses totaled 4,041 dead/missing, 2,640 wounded, 17 captured, and 370 aircraft destroyed. Stunned by the high losses sustained by Students troops, Hitler resolved never to conduct a major airborne operation again. Conversely, many Allied leaders were impressed by the airbornes performance and moved to create similar formations within their own armies. In studying the German experience in Crete, American airborne planners, such as Colonel James Gavin,  recognized the need for troops to jump with their own heavy weapons. This doctrinal change ultimately aided American airborne units once they reached Europe.

Cultural Awareness Of Sub-Saharan Africa - 1069 Words

What is culture, one might ask? According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, culture is the â€Å"customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group or the characteristic features of everyday existence (as diversions or a way of life} shared by people in a place or time† (Culture). Five major characteristics that define a culture include culture is learned, culture is shared, culture is symbolic, culture is all-encompassing, and culture is integrated. Culture depends on the human capacity for cultural learning that encompasses shared rules for conduct and that are dependent upon symbols. Cultures can be integrated by using â€Å"social and economic forces, core values, and key symbols† (Mirror for Humanity,†¦show more content†¦Savannas have wet and dry seasons and go from extremes like drought and fires ignited by lightning. Lastly, tropical woodlands have a more defined dry season with hot temperatures (Global Warming). One of the poorest regions in Africa, the Sub-Saharan region has suffered throughout the years while being labeled with some of the least developed countries in the world. Diseases like malaria have struck this area hard. In 2007, the population of this portion of Africa was 800 million, with a growth rate of 2.3%. Many of the countries in this region have very high fertility rates with more than 40% of the population in this region 15 years of age or younger. Infant mortality, HIV/Aids, and other figures are also astounding. Because this region is lacking infrastructures, this stifles their economic growth. However, this region does export many minerals, like gold and bauxite. Universities located within the Sub-Saharan region experienced triple growth in enrollment from 1991 – 2005. Many of those college-educated students are now coming to countries like the United States and Europe to live and work. This region of the world includes about 1,000 languages spoken. â€Å"Th e causes for conflicts in modern day Africa cannot be understood without an appreciation of the struggle between traditional African culture and its clashes with Muslim and European cultures. Understanding Africa’s tripleShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Religion On The Northern Africa And Southern Asia1171 Words   |  5 PagesEffect of Religion and Oil in Northern Africa and Southwestern Asia The Northern part of Africa (Maghreb) and the Southwestern Asia regions constituting Levant, Anatolia and Mesopotamia are considered to be the birthplace of the world’s 3 major religions. Also, this region accounts for more than 60% of the world’s oil reserves. Religions  have had significant effects on the region adding to its strengths and detriments just as has oil contributing to its growth and at the same time its wars.    CitiesRead MoreHiv / Aids And Aids1597 Words   |  7 Pageslife, and there is no complete cure yet at the moment. Based on the most recent WHO (World Health Organization) data, approximately 35 million people are living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2013, and remarkably more than 23 million people in sub Saharan Africa experience the most severe HIV/AIDS epidemics. Despite the fact there are still a large population of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world, a lots of human efforts have been putting on the prevention of the disease since the beginningRead MoreDeveloping Sub Saharan Africa Essay1158 Words   |  5 PagesSome of the world’s poorest countries, with some of the highest child labor and illiteracy rates lie in Sub Saharan Africa. People generally associate the region only with poor economic conditions and all of the social disorder that goes along with 3rd World Status. While some of this reputation is deserved, many people are also failing to see the vast potential for this part of the world. There are several factors that African governments should look into if they want to effectively and efficientlyRead MoreThe Epidemic Of Tuberculosis, Kenya, Uganda And The Democratic Republic Of The Congo1665 Words   |  7 Pagesnot treated. (The World Health Organisation) (2015a) The world health organisation (WHO) (2015b) reports that 95% of these deaths are in resource poor areas. This essay will focus on Sub-Saharan Africa, an area with a wide proportion of resource poor settings. WHO (2015d) estimated around 3.2million people in Africa to have TB, with a mortality rate of 450,000. Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were in the top 25 countries in the world for TB mortality andRead MoreWhat Social Factors Have Driven the Spread of Hiv/Aids in Sub-Saharan Africa?3708 Words   |  15 PagesWhat social factors have driven the spread of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa? The Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the immune system caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV is transmitted via unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, and from an infected mother to child during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding. There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS. AIDS is a debilitating condition that has great socialRead MoreChildren With Hiv / Aids843 Words   |  4 Pagesdangers of smoking, but that they maintain their smoking habit and continue to cause harm to their bodies. This concept is similar to what we have learned in class about how people respond to HIV/AIDS. Though many of the individuals living in sub-Saharan Africa—where HIV infection is the highest—know of the risks associated with infection and how the virus is transmitted, they continue to engage in risky behavior. Also relating to what we have learned in class in regards to educating people, M r. WestonRead MoreSpread Of Hiv / Aids1574 Words   |  7 PagesThe Spread of HIV/AIDs in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa has been singled out as having the most serious HIV epidemic in the world. There is need to curb the spread of HIV in the continent by leveraging the knowledge and skills necessary to understand the factors responsible for the spread of the disease. This paper attempts to investigate the risk factors involved in the spread of HIV and how to reduce HIV prevalence regardless of these risks factors. The paper then goes a step further andRead MoreNight Fix Solar Panels1150 Words   |  5 Pages My company is Night Fix Solar Panels. The company is funded by direct investments. The company is a manufacturer of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) solar panels and offers installation as well. The company will market it panels in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. The company specializes in CPV panels that use the sun as a power source to supply electricity with higher efficiencies than conventional flat panel collectors. The company’s trademark is the blue thin film coating of theRead MoreThe Demographic Transition Of Nigeria996 Words   |  4 PagesWhile some countries have quickly transitioned from high birth, high death to low birth, low death, others have struggled to move from one phase to the next, or what scholar refer to as a stalled demographic transition. Nigeria—as well as much of Sub-Saharan African—exemplifies such stagnation in demographic shifts. Nigerian population growth rate has declined more slowly than most areas of the world. Not only do fertility and mortality remain high, progress in reaching the replacement rate has stagnatedRead Moreâ€Å"Gender Inequality Exists to Some Extent, in Most Areas of Society, in All Countries of the World†. Geographically Examine This Statement.841 Words   |  4 Pageselections, as well as vote in elections. Sub-Saharan Africa is another area in which women’s empowerment is being promoted. This time through giving women mobile phones to help improve their lives slightly. Statistics show that within Sub-Saharan Africa 300 million fewer men than women have mobiles. So the plan was to issue 150 million mobiles to women across the region. It is thought that mobiles can help with literacy, health programs and project awareness, developing small businesses, and gaining

South America Free Essays

string(29) " low and geologically young\." Introduction The continent of South America has about one-eighth of the Earth’s land surface, situated between latitudes 12 °N-55 °S and longitudes 80 °-35 °W; no other continent has a greater latitudinal span. Eighty percent of its land mass is within the tropical zone, yet it extends into the subantarctic. The extensive zones of temperate and cold climates in the vicinity of the Equator, in the Andes, are unique. We will write a custom essay sample on South America or any similar topic only for you Order Now The land area of about 17,519,900-17,529,250 km? is under the jurisdiction of 13 countries (Table 49); French Guiana is governed as an overseas department of France. The region’s 1995 population of c. 320 million people is estimated to reach 452 million people in 2025. Three of the world’s 21 megacities are in South America: Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro (WRI, UNEP and UNDP 1994). Geological setting Although the neotropics may be conveniently considered as a single phytogeographic unit, the region is geologically complex. The neotropics include not only the South American continental plate but the southern portion of the North American plate, as well as the independent Caribbean plate (Clapperton 1993). The complicated geological history of the region, for example as these plates intermittently separated and collided through the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, provides the milieu within which plant evolution has been superimposed. South America has been an island continent during most of the period of angiosperm evolution, whereas Central America constitutes one of the two tropical parts of the Laurasian â€Å"world continent†. Both South America and North America have been moving westward, roughly in tandem, since the breakup of Pangaea in the Mesozoic. In contrast, the Antillean plate with its flotsam of Antillean islands formed only during the Cenozoic and has moved in a retrograde eastern direction, at least with respect to its larger neighbours. Whereas South America and North America have been widely separated through most of their geological histories, there has been generally increasing contact between them through most of the Cenozoic, culminating in their coalescence with formation of the Isthmus of Panama c. 3. 1 million years ago (Keigwin 1978). The date of this epochal event in neotropical geological history has been gradually estimated to be younger, with estimates of 5. 7 million years ago giving way to as recently as 1. 8 million years ago (Keller, Zenker and Stone 1989). In addition to their Pleistocene connection via the Isthmus of Panama, South America and North America apparently were more or less directly interconnected via the protoAntilles for a short time near the end of the Cretaceous, prior to formation of the Caribbean plate (Buskirk 1992). The outstanding geological feature of South America is the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, which extends in a nearly straight line of over 7000 km from the north to the southern tip of the continent. The Andes have the highest mountain in the Western Hemisphere, the highest mountain in the world’s tropics, and as measured from the centre of the Earth (rather than metres above sea-level), the highest mountain in the world. The most important break in the north-south sweep of the â€Å"cordillera† is the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the eastern chain of the cordillera is entirely ruptured (by the Maranon River) and even the western chain dips to 2145 m (at the Abra de Porculla). The existence of this massive mountain range has had profound effects on plant and animal evolution in South America, and consequently has profound effects on essential conservation priorities. In essence, the Andes represent a classical plate tectonic upthrust of continental rock, as the leading edge of the westward-moving South American plate collides with the oceanic Pacific plates. The Southern Andes are the oldest, with significant uplift already present in early Cenozoic times, prior to the Oligocene. Most of the uplift of the Central Andes was in the Miocene or later, whereas most of the uplift of the northern portion of the cordillera has been Plio-Pleistocene (van der Hammen 1974). To the north the Andes become more geologically complex, breaking into three separate cordilleras on the Ecuador/Colombia border. Much of the north-western margin of South America, including Colombia’s western and central cordilleras, appears to be amassed â€Å"suspect terrane† rather than an integral part of the South American continental plate (Juteau  et al. 1977; McCourt, Aspden and Brook 1984). Much of the rest of the South American continent consists of two great crystalline shields that represent the western portion of what was once Gondwanaland. The north-eastern portion of the continent constitutes the Guayana Shield, whereas much of Brazil south of Amazonia is underlain by the Brazilian Shield. These two major shields were formerly interconnected across what is today the Lower Amazon. They consist of a Precambrian igneous basement overlain by ancient mucheroded Precambrian sediments. The Guayana region has been the most heavily eroded, with basement elevations mostly below 500 m interrupted by massive flattopped table mountains, the fabled â€Å"tepuis†, typically rising to 2000 m or 2500 m. The peak of the highest of these, Cerro Neblina or Pico da Neblina on the Venezuela/Brazil border, reaches an altitude of 3015 m and is the highest point in South America outside the Andes. The tepuis and similar formations are highest and most extensive in southern Venezuela, becoming smaller and more isolated to the west and east where La Macarena near the base of the Andes in Colombia and the Inini-Camopi Range in French Guiana respectively represent their ultimate vestiges. The quartzite and sandstone of the Guayana Shield erode into nutrient-poor sands, and much of the Guayana region is characterized by extreme impoverishment of soils. The rivers draining this region are largely very acidic blackwater rivers, of which the Rio Negro is the most famous. The Brazilian Shield is generally higher and less dissected, with much of central Brazil having an elevation of 800-1000 m. The Brazilian Shield is mostly drained by clearwater rivers such as the Tapajos and Xingu. In contrast to these ancient shields, the Amazonian heartland of South America is low and geologically young. You read "South America" in category "Essay examples" Prior to the Miocene most of Amazonia constituted a large inland sea opening to the Pacific. With uplift of the Central Andes, this sea became a giant lake that gradually filled with Andean sediments. When the Amazon River broke through the narrow connection between the Guayanan and Brazilian shields near Santarem, Brazil, Amazonia began to drain eastward into the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the region remains so flat that ocean-going ships can reach Iquitos, Peru, which is only 110 m above sea-level, yet 3000 km from the mouth of the Amazon and less than 800 km from the Pacific Ocean. Most of Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is below 200 m in elevation. The process of Amazonian sedimentation is continuing, as the sediment-laden white-water rivers course down from the Andes, continually changing their channels and depositing and redepositing their sediments along the way. About 26% of Peruvian Amazonia shows direct evidence of recent riverine reworking (Salo  et al. 1986). With the lack of relief, it is not surprising that rather fine nuances of drainage, topography and depositional history are often major determinants of vegetation. Like Amazonia, some other distinctive geological features of the South American continent are relatively low, flat and geologically young, such as the chaco/pantanal/pampa region to the south, the Venezuelan/Colombian Llanos to the north and the trans-Andean Choco region of Colombia and Ecuador to the west. Large portions of these areas have been inundated during periods of high sea-level in the past, and large portions of all of these regions are seasonally inundated presently. One aspect of the geological history of Latin America that has received much biogeographic attention is the series of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and their effects on distribution and evolution of the present neotropical biota. It is clear from the palynological record that major changes in vegetation were associated with the cycles of Pleistocene glaciation (e. . van der Hammen 1974), although to what extent lowland Amazonia was predominantly drier (e. g. Haffer 1969; van der Hammen 1974), colder (Colinvaux 1987; Liu and Colinvaux 1988) or both, and how this affected the Pleistocene distribution of tropical forest, remain hotly contested (Colinvaux 1987; Rasanen, Salo and Kalliola 1991). Although most of the corroborative geomorphological evidence for dry periods in the tropical lowlands during the Pleist ocene is now otherwise interpreted (Irion 1989; Colinvaux 1987), some new data look promising. There are also several other theories that attempt to explain aspects of present biogeography on the basis of past geological events, including river-channel formation and migration (Capparella 1988; Salo  et al. 1986; Salo and Rasanen 1989), hypothesized massive flooding in south-western Amazonia (Campbell and Frailey 1984), and the formation of a putative giant Pleistocene lake in Amazonia (Frailey  et al. 1988). Mesoamerica For its size, Middle America is even more complex geologically than South America (see Central America regional overview). Nuclear Central America, an integral part of the North American continent, reaches south to central Nicaragua. The region from southern Nicaragua to the isthmus of Darien in Panama is geologically younger and presents recent volcanism, uplift and associated sedimentation. Like South America, the northern neotropics have a mountainous spine that breaks into separate cordilleras in the north. In general the Middle American cordilleras are highest to the north in Mexico, and lowest in Panama to the south-east. In Mexico, the geological picture is complicated by a band of volcanoes that bisects the continent from east to west at the latitude of Mexico City. This â€Å"eje volcanico transversal† is associated with the Mexican megashear, along which the southern half of the country has gradually moved eastward with respect to the northern half. In southern Central America, volcanism has been most intensive in Costa Rica, which has two sections of its Central Cordillera reaching above treeline. In northern Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua the volcanoes become gradually reduced in size and more isolated from each other to the north. Similarly in Panama the Central Cordillera is over 2000 m high to the west near the Costa Rican border but only about 500 m high in most of the eastern part of the country. In central Panama, the Panama Canal cuts through a continental divide of only 100 m elevation, and in the San Juan River/Lake Nicaragua area of Nicaragua the maximum elevation is even less. For montane organisms, these interruptions in the cordillera represent major biological discontinuities. The Yucatan Peninsula area of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize represents a geologically anomalous portion of Middle America. It is a flat limestone formation more like the Greater Antilles or Peninsular Florida than the mountainous terrain and volcanic soil of most of Middle America. Limestone is otherwise relatively rare in the continental neotropics, in contrast to many other parts of the world, with small outcrops like those in the Madden Lake region of central Panama or the Coloso area of northern Colombia being associated with peculiar floras. These areas, like the Yucatan Peninsula, tend to show distinctly Antillean floristic affinities, paralleling the geological ones. Caribbean The Antillean islands constitute the third geologic unit of the neotropics (see Caribbean Islands regional overview). The Antilles make up in geological complexity what they lack in size. The most striking geological anomaly is Hispaniola, which is a composite of what were three separate islands during much of the Cenozoic. In addition to being completely submerged during part of the midCenozoic, the southern peninsula of Hispaniola was probably attached to Cuba instead of Hispaniola until the end of the Cenozoic. Jamaica too was completely submerged during much of the mid-Cenozoic, and has a different geological history from the rest of the Greater Antilles, with closer connections to Central America via the nowsubmerged Nicaraguan Rise. Possibly a collision of the western end of the Greater Antilles island arc with Mexico-Guatemala fragmented its western end to form Jamaica. Also phytogeographically and conservationally important, some of the Antilles have extensive areas of distinctive substrates. In addition to large areas of limestone, most of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) have significant areas of serpentine and other ultrabasic rocks formed from uplift of patches of oceanic crust during the north-eastward movement of the Caribbean plate. The Lesser Antilles are small and actively volcanic. Most of the other smaller islands are low limestone keys with little or no geological relief. These patterns are clearly reflected in the Antillean flora. The most striking concentrations of local endemism occur in areas of ultrabasic rocks or on unusual types of limestone on the larger islands. The Lesser Antilles, Bahamas and other smaller islands have only a depauperate subset of the generally most widespread Antillean taxa. Vegetation The neotropics include a broad array of vegetation types commensurate with their ecological diversity. Along the west coast of South America are both one of the wettest places in the world – Tutunendo in the Choco region of Colombia, with 11,770 mm of annual precipitation, and the driest – no rain has been recorded in parts of the Atacama Desert of Chile. The largest tract of rain forest in the world is in the Amazon Basin, and Amazonia has received a perhaps disproportionate share of the world’s conservation attention. While the forests of Upper Amazonia are the most diverse in the world for many kinds of organisms, including trees as well as butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, other vegetation types have equal or greater concentrations of local endemism and are more acutely threatened. In particular, the plight of dry forests and of Andean montane forests are beginning to receive increased attention. Some isolated areas of lowland moist forest outside of Amazonia also have highly endemic floras and are currently much more threatened than Amazonia. In the following paragraphs are sketched the major neotropical vegetation types, followed by a conservation assessment of each. At the very broadest level, the lowland vegetation types of South America and the rest of the neotropics may be summarized as: 1. Tropical moist forest (evergreen or semi-evergreen rain forest)  in Amazonia, the coastal region of Brazil, the Choco and the lower Magdalena Valley, and along the Atlantic coast of Central America to Mexico. 2. Dry forest (intergrading into woodland)  along the Pacific side of Mexico and Central America, in northern Colombia and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and adjacent Peru, the Velasco area (Chiquitania) of eastern Bolivia, a broad swath from north-west Argentina to north-east Brazil encompassing chaco, cerrado and caatinga, and with scattered smaller patches elsewhere. 3. Open grassy savanna  in the pampas region of north-eastern Argentina and adjacent Uruguay and southernmost Brazil, the Llanos de Mojos and adjacent pantanal of Bolivia and Brazil, the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and the Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna in the Guayana region. 4. Desert and arid steppe  in northern Mexico, the dry Sechura and Atacama regions along the west coast of South America between 5 °S and 30 °S, and in the monte and Patagonian steppes of the south-eastern part of the Southern Cone of South America. 5. The  Mediterranean-climate region  of central Chile. 6. The  temperate evergreen forests  of southern Chile with an adjacent fringe of Argentina. More complex montane formations occur along the Andean Cordillera which stretches the length of the western periphery of South America, in the more interrupted Central American/Mexican cordilleran system, in the tepuis of the Guayana region and in the coastal cordillera of southern Brazil. Moist and wet forests In general, forests receiving more than 1600 mm (Gentry 1995) or 2000 mm (Holdridge 1967) of annual rainfall are evergreen or semi-evergreen and may be referred to as tropical moist forest. In the neotropics, lowland tropical moist forest is often further subdivided, following the Holdridge life-zone system, into moist forest (2000-4000 mm of precipitation annually), wet forest (4000-8000 mm) and pluvial forest (over 8000 mm). Nearly all of the Amazon Basin receives 2000 mm or more of annual rainfall and constitutes variants of the moist forest. There are also several major regions of lowland moist forest variously disjunct from the Amazonian core area. These include the region along the Atlantic coast of Central America (extending into Mexico), the lower Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, the Choco egion along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador, and the coastal forests of Brazil. Lowland moist forest is the most diverse neotropical vegetation type, structurally as well as taxonomically. In most lowland moist-forest and wet-forest regions around a quarter of the species are vines and lianas, a quarter to a half terrestrial herbs (including weeds), up to a quarter vascular epiphytes and only about a quarter trees (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Gentry 1990b). To the extent that smaller organisms such as herbs and epiphytes may demand different conservation strategies than large organisms like trees (or top predators), this habitat diversity assumes conservation importance. Diversity patterns are also important for conservation planning. There is a strong correlation of plant community diversity with precipitation – wetter forests generally are more botanically diverse. For plants the most speciesrich forests in the world are the aseasonal lowland moist and wet forests of Upper Amazonia and the Choco region. For plants over 2. 5 cm dbh in 0. 1-ha samples, world record sites are in the pluvial-forest area of the Colombian Choco (258-265 species); for plants over 10 cm dbh in 1-ha plots, the world record is near Iquitos, Peru (300 species out of 606 individual trees and lianas). Concentrations of endemism do not necessarily follow those of diversity. Local endemism appears to be concentrated in cloud-forest regions along the base of the northern Andes and in adjacent southern Central America (cf. Vazquez-Garcia 1995), and in the north-western sector of Amazonia where the substrate mosaic associated with sediments from the Guayana Shield is most complex (Gentry 1986a). Overall regional endemism in predominantly moist-forest areas is greatest in Amazonia, with an estimated 13,700 endemic species constituting 76% of the flora (Gentry 1992d). However many of these species are relatively widespread within Amazonia. The much more restricted (and devastated, see below) Mata Atlantica forests of coastal Brazil have almost three-quarters as many endemic species (c. 500) as Amazonia and similarly high endemism (73% of the flora) (Gentry 1992d). Moreover a larger proportion of the Mata Atlantica species probably are locally endemic. On the other side of South America, the trans-Andean very wet to wet and moist forests of the Choco and coastal Ecuador are also geographically isolated and highly endemic (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982). Estimates of endemism in the Choco phytogeographic reg ion are c. 20% (Gentry 1982b). Probably about 1260 or 20% of western Ecuador’s 6300 naturally occurring species also are endemic (Dodson and Gentry 1991). For the northern Andean region as a whole, including both the coastal lowlands of western Colombia and Ecuador and the adjacent uplands, Gentry (1992d) estimated over 8000 endemic species, constituting 56% of the flora. Moreover this is probably the floristically most poorly known part of the neotropics, perhaps of the world, surely with several thousand mostly endemic species awaiting discovery and description. Dry forests There are seven main areas of dry forest in the neotropics, and by some estimations this may be the most acutely threatened of all neotropical vegetations. The interior dry areas of South America are outstanding in their regional endemism, estimated at 73%. Two of the most extensive neotropical dry-forest areas represent manifestations of the standard interface between the subtropical high pressure desert areas and the moist equatorial tropics. In Middle America, this area of strongly seasonal climate occurs mostly along the Pacific coast in a narrow but formerly continuous band from Mexico to the Guanacaste region of north-western Costa Rica. There are also outliers farther south in the Terraba Valley of Costa Rica, Azuero Peninsula of Panama, and even around Garachine in the Darien (Panama), partially connecting the main Middle American dry forest with that of northern South America. These western Middle American dry forests are made up almost entirely of broadleaved deciduous species. In addition, the northern part of the Yucatan and large areas of the Antilles are covered by dry-forest variants. Most of the Caribbean dry forests are on limestone, and their woody species tend to be distinctively more sclerophyllous and smaller leaved than are the Pacific coast dry-forest plants. In the driest areas, both these types of dry forest tend to smaller stature and merge into various kinds of thorn-scrub matorral. In South America, only the extreme northern parts of Colombia and Venezuela reach far enough from the Equator to enter the strongly seasonal subtropical zone. Floristically and physiognomically this northern dry area is very much like similarly dry areas of western Middle America. The strongly seasonal region of northern South America also includes the open savannas of the Llanos extending from the Orinoco River west and north to the base of the Eastern Cordillera of he Colombian Andes and the north slope of the Coast Range of Venezuela. Large areas of the lowlying, often poorly drained Llanos are seasonally inundated, especially in the Apure region. The main area of tropical dry forest in South America is the chaco region, encompassing the western half of Paraguay and adjacent areas of Bolivia and Argentina, south of 17 °S latitude. The â€Å"chacoâ₠¬  is physiognomically distinctive in being a dense scrubby vegetation of mostly smallleaved, spiny branched small trees interspersed with scattered large individuals of a few characteristic species of large trees. To the south, the chaco gives way to the desert scrub of the Argentine monte. There is a distinctive but generally neglected area of dry forest at the interface between the chaco and Amazonia in Bolivia. The names Chiquitania and Velasco forest have been used locally in Bolivia to refer to this vegetation, which extends from the Tucuvaca Valley and Serrania de Chiquitos in easternmost Santa Cruz Department interruptedly westward to the base of the Andes and along much of the lower Andean slopes of the southern half of Bolivia. This region of closed-canopy dry forest is physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, with tall broadleaved completely deciduous (caducifolious) trees. Although it has been locally regarded as merely representing the transition between the chaco and Amazonia, it is a floristically and physiognomically distinctive unit that should be accorded equivalent conservation importance to the other major dry-forest vegetation types (Gentry 1994). The chaco is adjoined to the north by two large and phytogeographically distinctive areas of dry forest, the cerrado and caatinga, which cover a small portion of easternmost Bolivia and most of the Brazilian Shield area of central and north-eastern Brazil. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"cerrado† region consists of wooded savanna with characteristically gnarled sclerophyllous-leaved trees with thick twisted branches and thick bark, widely enough separated to allow a ground cover of grass intermixed with a rich assortment of woody-rooted (xylopodial) subshrubs. The cerrado also includes areas where the trees form a nearly closed canopy (â€Å"cerradao†), and large open areas of grasses and subshrubs with no trees at all (â€Å"campo limpio† and â€Å"campo rupestre†). Although the cerrado is appropriately considered a kind of dry forest, some cerrado regions actually receive more rainfall than do adjacent forest regions; excess aluminium in the soil may be as important as the climate in determining its distribution. The even drier forest of the caatinga of north-eastern Brazil extends from an appropriately subtropical 17 °S latitude farther north to a surprisingly equatorial 3 °S. Why this region should have such low rainfall remains poorly understood. Another climatic peculiarity is the irregularity of its rainfall, not only with low annual precipitation, but also with frequent years when the rains fail almost completely. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"caatinga† – relatively low, dense, small-leaved and completely deciduous in the dry season – is physiognomically similar to that of the chaco. The final major South American dry-forest area is the coastal forest of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador. Even more anomalous in its geographical setting than the caatinga, this dry-forest region is positioned almost on the Equator. The occurrence of dry forest so near the Equator is due to the offshore Humboldt Current. While similar cold-water currents occur along mid-latitude western coasts of other continents, the Humboldt Current is perhaps the strongest of these and is the only cold current reaching so near the Equator. The dry forest of coastal Peru and adjacent Ecuador is (or at least was, see below) physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, tall with a closed canopy of broadleaved completely deciduous trees. There also are a number of scattered smaller patches of tropical dry forest and/or savanna in various interAndean valleys, around Tarapoto, Peru, the Trinidad region of Bolivia, Brazil’s Roraima area, the Surinam/Brazil border region, on Marajo Island, and in the pantanal region of the upper Paraguay River. Grasslands and deserts Grasslands and deserts occupy smaller areas of the neotropics than they do in Africa or most higher latitude continents. The main grassland region of the neotropics is the pampas region between about 39 °S and 28 °S and encompassing most of Uruguay as well as adjacent eastern Argentina and southernmost Brazil. The other major grassland area is the llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela. Smaller predominantly grassland regions occur in north-eastern Bolivia (Llanos de Mojos) and the south-eastern Guayana region (Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna). There are also areas with few or no trees and dominated by grasses in the cerrado and pantanal regions of Brazil, and scattered outliers associated with local edaphic peculiarities elsewhere. None of the major grassland regions has many endemic species, in contrast to the campos rupestres of the Brazilian Shield and the Guayana area whitesand savannas, which have many endemics. This contrast is especially marked in southern Venezuela where some savanna patches have clay soils and a llanos-type flora of widespread species, whereas others have sandy soils and a flora of Amazonian affinities with many endemic species (Huber 1982). The desert regions of Latin America are confined to northern Mexico, the monte (Morello 1958; Orians and Solbrig 1977) and Patagonian steppes of Argentina, and the narrow Pacific coastal strip of northern Chile and Peru. The 3500-km long South American coastal desert is one of the most arid in the world – most of it is largely devoid of vegetation. This region is saved from conservational obscurity, however, by the occurrence of islandlike patches of mostly herbaceous vegetation in places where steep coastal slopes are regularly bathed in winter fog. Although these â€Å"lomas† formations are individually not very rich in species (mostly fewer than 100 spp. ), they have a very high degree of endemism due to their insular nature. The overall lomas flora includes nearly 1000 species, mostly annuals or geophytes. Diversity and endemism in the lomas formations generally increase southward, where cacti and other succulents are also increasingly represented (Muller 1985; Rundel  et al. 991). Montane vegetation The main montane-forest area of the neotropics is associated with the Andes. A major but more interrupted montane-forest strip is associated with the mountainous backbone of Central America. Venezuela’s Cordillera de la Costa phytogeographically is essentially an Andean extension, although geologically distinct from the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The tepui summits of the Guayana Highlands, though small in area, constitute a highly distinctive and phytogeographically fascinating montane environment. The Serra do Mar along Brazil’s south-eastern coast is mostly low elevation but has a few peaks reaching above treeline with a depauperate paramo-like vegetation. The Andes may be conveniently recognized in three segments: northern – Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador; central-Peru and Bolivia; and southern-Chile and Argentina. In general the northern Andes are wetter, the central and southern regions drier. The main biogeographic discontinuity in the Andean forests is associated with the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the extensive system of dry interAndean valleys of the Maranon River and its tributaries entirely bisects the Eastern Cordillera and is associated with a topographically complex region having unusually high local endemism. Treeline in the tropical Andes occurs around 3500 m, depending on latitude and local factors. Above treeline, the wet grass-dominated vegetation of the Venezuelan, Colombian and northern Ecuadorian Andes is termed â€Å"paramo†; this drier vegetation, occurring from Peru to Argentina and Chile, is the â€Å"puna†. Colombian and Venezuelan paramos are characterized by  Espeletia  (Compositae) with its typical pachycaul-rosette growth form. The vegetation above treeline of most of Ecuador and northernmost Peru, locally called â€Å"jalca† in Peru, is ecologically as well as geographically intermediate; although generally called paramo in Ecuador, this region lacks the definitive  Espeletia  aspect of the typical northern paramos. While individual high-Andean plant communities are not very rich in species, many different communities can occur in close proximity in broken montane terrain. Thus the several high-Andean sites for which Florulas are available (Cleef 1981; Smith 1988; Galeano 1990; Ruthsatz 1977) have between 500-800 species, approaching the size of some lowland tropical Florulas. The moist Andean slopes generally show a distinctive floristic zonation, with woody plant diversity decreasing linearly with altitude from c. 1500 m to treeline. Below 1500 m Andean forests are generally similar both in floristic composition and diversity to equivalent samples of lowland forest. There are also structural changes at different elevations. For example hemi-epiphytic climbers show a strong peak in abundance between 1500-2400 m, epiphytes are usually more numerous in middleelevation cloud forests, and the stem density of woody plants is usually greater at higher elevations (Gentry 1992a). While the northern Andes have cloud forest on both western and eastern slopes, increasing aridity south from the Equator limits cloud forest to an ever narrower band on the Pacific slope. South of 7 °S latitude, forest on the western slopes of the Andes is restricted to isolated protected pockets, and the predominant slope vegetation becomes chaparral, thorn scrub and desert. One of the most striking features of the Andes phytogeographically is the high level of floristic endemism. In part this is associated with the discontinuity of high-altitude vegetation types, which are strongly fragmented into habitat islands. In addition to microgeographic allopatric speciation related to habitat fragmentation, it seems likely that unusually dynamic speciation, perhaps associated with genetic drift in small founder populations, may be a prevalent evolutionary theme in Andean cloud forests (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Gentry 1989). The combination of high local endemism (Gentry 1986a, 1993a; Luteyn 1989; Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991) with major deforestation makes the Andes one of South America’s conservationally most critical regions. As with the dry forests, the Andean forests have recently begun to receive greater conservation attention (Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991; Young and Valencia 1992). Estimates of deforestation for the northern Andes as a whole are generally over 90%. Some areas are even more critical – perhaps less than 5% of Colombia’s high-altitude montane forests remain (Hernandez-C. 1990) and only c. 4% of the original forest persists on the western Andean slopes of Ecuador (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Most of the northern Peruvian Andes are similarly deforested (cf. Dillon 1994). Although relatively extensive forests still remain on the Amazonfacing slopes of Peru and Bolivia, much of this area is being actively deforested, in large part to grow â€Å"coca† (Erythroxylum coca) and opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Flora From a conservation perspective, the neotropical region merits very special attention. Just as South America is sometimes called the â€Å"bird continent†, the neotropics might well be termed the â€Å"plant continent† in deference to their uniquely rich botanical diversity (Table 50). If current estimates are accurate, the neotropical region contains 90,000-100,000 plant species, twice to nearly three times as many as in either tropical Africa or tropical Australasia (cf. Prance 1994). The last great places for plant collecting are in the northern half of South America (J. Wurdack 1995, pers. comm. ), which is two to four times less documented by herbarium specimens than elsewhere in the tropics (cf. Campbell 1989). Some of the main relatively unexplored areas (according to Wurdack) are, in Brazil: Serra de Tumucumaque (Tumuc-Humac Mountains), along the border with Surinam and French Guiana; slopes, especially the eastern slopes, of Pico da Neblina; in north-western Mato Grosso State, along the Linea Telegrafica; in Venezuela: slopes and talus forests of the tepuis; aramos west of Pinango (north of Merida); eastern slopes to Paramo de Tama (State of Merida, near border with Colombia); in Colombia: Paramo de Frontino (west of Medellin); Cuatrecasas’ headwater localities of collection in western Colombia, particularly in the Department of Valle del Cauca (cf. Cuatrecasas 1958); upper elevations of the Serrania de La Macarena (Department of Meta); in Ecuador: Cordillera de Los Llanganates (which is east of Ambato) (cf. Kennerley and Bromley 1971); Cordillera de Cutucu (Province of Morona-Santiago); Cordillera del Condor, along the border with Peru; in Peru: elevations above 700 m of the Cerros Campanquiz, which are mostly in the Department of Amazonas; the eastern cordillera in the Department of Amazonas, Province of Chachapoyas (e. g. the Cerro de las Siete Lagunas east of Cerro Campanario); portions of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba (which is north-west of Cusco), including the northern Cutivireni region (Villa-Lobos 1995); and in Bolivia: the easternmost Andes and granitic outliers in the Department of Santa Cruz. Floristic diversity is very asymmetrically distributed in South America (cf. Table 51). If the nine phytogeographic regions recognized by Gentry (1982a) for the neotropics are taken as a basis, Central America with Mexico (Mesoamerica) and Amazonia are the richest in species, with each of these two regions having about a quarter of the neotropical total. At the opposite extreme, the Antilles have an estimated 9% of the total neotropical flora and the Caribbean coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela has only 8%. The minuscule area of the Guayana Highlands (above 1500 m) accounts for only c. 2. 5% of the neotropical flora, but has one of the highest rates of endemism (65%) in the region (Berry, Huber and Holst 1995). The three main tropical South American dry areas together include a relatively low 11% of the neotropical species total. Intermediate levels of regional plant species richness are found in the Northern Andean and Southern Andean regions and the Mata Atlantica area of Brazil, which each have between 16-18% of the tropical flora of the neotropical region. Regional endemism is greatest in Amazonia including lowland Guayana (76%), but almost as great in coastal Brazil (73%) and the chacocerradocaatinga dry areas (73%). In contrast, those two Andean subregions, Central America, and the Antilles have endemism levels of 54-60%, and the northern Colombia/Venezuela region only 24%. Farther south in the Southern Cone of South America, the monte of Argentina is estimated to include 700 species with 5% endemism, and Patagonia 1200 species with 30% endemism. Chile as a whole has 5215 species (Marticorena and Quezada 1985; Marticorena 1990), with 1800-2400 in the Mediterranean-climate area of central Chile where endemism is high, perhaps greater than for any of the equivalent tropical regions. The reasons for the unique floristic diversity of the neotropics as compared to Africa or tropical Australasia continue to be hotly debated. A popular theory is allopatric multiplication of species in habitat-island forest refugia during Pleistocene glacial advances (Haffer 1969; Prance 1973, 1982). Africa, which is higher and drier, would have had fewer refugia and more extinction. Tropical Asia was less affected, being buffered by the nearby ocean due to the island status of its components and by its proximity to a rain source from the Pacific (the world’s largest ocean). Other theories, not necessarily mutually exclusive (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982), focus on explosive speciation in the more extensive cloud-forest area of the neotropics (Gentry 1982a, 1989; Gentry and Dodson 1987); â€Å"Endlerian† speciation associated with habitat specialization in the uniquely complicated habitat mosaic of north-western and north-central Amazonia (Gentry 1986a, 1989; Gentry and Ortiz-S. 993); speciation associated with riverine barriers to gene flow in the largest river system of the world (Capparella 1988; Ducke and Black 1953); or biogeographical phenomena associated with the Great American Interchange and stemming from the direct juxtaposition of Laurasian and Gondwanan elements via the Isthmus of Panama (Gentry 1982a; Marshall  et al. 1979). Social an d environmental values, and economic importance The indigenous groups (nations) of South America (Gray 1987) are varyingly diverse peoples who often partly depend directly on the natural environment for their biological and cultural well or survival. Their approximate presence is shown inTable 52. As the site of one of the Vavilovian centres of domestication, South America has played an important role in providing plants useful to people. The Andean centre of domestication rivals the Indo-Malayan and Mediterranean areas as the region that has produced the most important crop plants. Tobacco, potatoes, grain amaranths, quinoa, peanuts, lima beans, kidney beans, tomatoes and perhaps sweet potatoes and pineapples all derive from the Peruvian Andes and immediately adjacent egions (Anderson 1952). Based on land-race diversity, western Amazonia was the centre of domestication of a series of less well-known but increasingly important crops, including â€Å"pejibaye† or peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), â€Å"biriba† or â€Å"anona† (Rollinia mucosa), â€Å"abiu† or â€Å"caimito† (Pouteria caimito), â€Å"sapota† (Quararibea cordata), â€Å"araza† (Eugenia stipitata), â€Å"uvilla† (P ourouma cecropiifolia) and â€Å"cubiu† or â€Å"cocona† (Solanum sessiliflorum) (Clement 1989). Of the 86 major crops and their more than 100 species included in a summary of crop plant evolution (Simmonds 1976), 24 crops are neotropical in origin either wholly (19) or partly (5). Also, a host of South American forest plants are used locally but have not reached world commerce. Amazonia is especially rich in wild fruits (e. g. Duke and Vasquez 1994). For example around Iquitos, Peru, 139 species of forest-harvested fruits are regularly consumed, 57 of them important enough to be sold in the local produce market (Vasquez and Gentry 1989). There are a multitude of other uses for neotropical plants. Gentry (1992b) notes that 38% of the Bignoniaceae species of north-western South America have specific ethnobotanical uses and suggests that this could be extrapolated to 10,000 species with uses in this part of the world alone. Many studies have shown that the direct economic value of such products can be very high (e. g. Peters, Gentry and Mendelsohn 1989; Balick and Mendelsohn 1992). In a single hectare of speciesrich tropical forest near Iquitos, 454 of the 858 trees and lianas of dbh 10 cm or more have actual or potential uses (Gentry 1986c), with the hectare of forest potentially producing US$650 worth of fruit and US$50 worth of rubber per year. If the 93 m? of sellable timber worth US$1000 is included, the net present value of the hectare of forest is US$9000, far more than the net present value of managed plantations or cattle-ranching. Additionally, the major role of forested areas in controlling erosion, recycling rainfall and as a carbon sink are now well known. As the territory with the largest tropical forest remaining in the world, South America plays a major role in providing such regional and planetary environmental services. Return to Top Loss, threats and conservation Although the neotropical region has the most forest, it is also losing more forest each year than any other area of tropical forest (Myers 1982; Reid 1992). In western Ecuador only 4% of the original forest cover remains (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Much attention has focused on Brazil, which includes 48% of the South American area. Perhaps the most definitive satellite analysis of deforestation in Amazonia to date (Skole and Tucker 1993) indicates that as of 1988 only c. 10% of Brazilian Amazonia had been deforested, but if allowance is made for a 1-km edge effect, fully 20% of Brazilian Amazonia had been impacted. Deforestation in Rondonia alone has been c. 4000 km? per year, reaching almost 40,000 km? r 15% of the state by 1989 (Malingreau and Tucker 1988; Fearnside 1991). In coastal Brazil estimates of surviving forest range from 2% (IUCN and WWF 1982) to 12% (Brown and Brown 1992). Burgeoning populations are the biggest factor in the ongoing losses, although political and economic instability in some areas, and short-sighted â€Å"development† programmes in other areas, also play significant roles. In most of the neotropics, unl ike much of the Old World, commercial lumbering operations have played a relatively small role so far. Conservational awareness throughout the region has increased dramatically in the past few years. Not only are increasing numbers of National Parks and similar conservation units being set aside, but there is also rapidly growing interest in the possibility of sustainable use of tropical forests as a conservation strategy. Unfortunately many destructive and unsustainable uses of forest can masquerade behind the banner of sustainable use. Making this promising new concept fulfil its potential remains a major challenge. Similarly the growing appreciation of the potential value of biodiversity has been accompanied by too much political preoccupation and posturing about sovereignty over potential genetic resources. Despite such problems, it is clear that the diversity of rain-forest plant life is intrinsically valuable. South America, botanically the richest continent, is also the greatest repository of potentially useful plants. Conservation of South America’s plant diversity is clearly a world conservational priority. How to cite South America, Essay examples

Management Theory and Practices Sustainable Operation

Question: Discuss about theManagement Theory and Practicesfor Sustainable Operation. Answer: Compare Henry Fayol Theories with Elton Mayo and Max Weber's Theory Introduction Management is referred to as a universal process concerning the skills and process being used. In other words, skills can be transferred from one environment and used in another effectively. Organizations, either profit making or non-profit making, focus on stability, security and sustainable operation. It's only through acceptable management practices that core organization activities can be achieved (Appleby, 1991, p. 34). Management is referred to as an applied techniques which relate closely relates to other fields such as psychology, economics, political science, finance and sociology among others. Therefore, management ideas, as known as theories, are developed based on periods such as scientific management, early influences, human relations and modern influences (Wilkinson, 2006, p. 35). Henry Fayol, Elton Mayo, and Max Weber are three renowned management theorists who have contributed immensely to the understanding of management concepts. Managers have for many occasions based their decisions based on the management theories and principles that were generated by these theorists. This paper will study the theories developed by each one of them as well as conducting the similarities and differences that exist among them (Brownlie, 2015, p. 76). Henry Fayol and Administrate Management Theories Fayol was a renowned French theorist and industrialist who was a qualified engineer in the mining sector. During his working days, he worked for a single company which led to his rising in rank to the top most management level. Through his management experience, Fayol developed a widely accepted administrative management theory. He believed that managers depend more on administrative management and less on technical knowledge of their organizations to be a success. Fayol is the first practicing manager to develop management theories (Raczkowski, 2016, p. 48). According to Fayol, an administrative manager should divide their activities into six groups namely; Commercial (selling, exchange, buying), Technical (manufacturing, production), Financial (creating and investing capital), Security (protecting employees and property), Accounting (stocktaking, costing, statistics, balance sheet). Fayol states that management encompasses forecasting and planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Fayol's principle of management does not treat management as an exclusive role of the managers but being part and parcel of all the stakeholders. He also maintained that the above mentioned, management activities are independent of each other and it is the responsibility of the management integrate them and achieve the enterprises' goals (Chandan, 2012, p. 113). From Fayol's management principle, we can deduce that people are born as managers but this is a skill that is learned. Fayol created management ideas that can be applied in any organization. In his book, The General Principles of Management, Fayol have listed fourteen principles that can be applied in administrative management. Although the list is not exhaustive, Fayol holds that they helped him all through his management career (Lowe, 2013, p. 67). The Fourteen principles are; Division of labour which helps in developing familiarity and practice on a given task. Authority principle which states that the orders given by the management should have some level of responsibility. Discipline principle states that the management should behave in accordance with the agreements between. There must be a unit of command i.e. an organization should have a uniform unit that gives directives. Direction unity: there should be one plan and head governing activities within a group. Incorporating interests by individuals to an organizational interest: The management should ensure that the individual's interest does not surpass that of the organization. Remuneration offered should be fair to both the enterprise and the employees. Centralization of the activities should be evident. Order; operations should be at right place, in the right time and being executed by the right people. Equity principle stating that the organization should combine both justice and kindness towards its employees. Stability of tenure; the employees especially the managers should be given adequate time to adapt to the company practices. Initiative principle states that each management level should be encouraged to have some level of innovation and taking initiatives towards achieving the organizational goals (Chandan, 2010, p. 43). And, Esprit de corps principle which advocates for harmony and teamwork. Although Fayol emphasized on a hierarchical aspect of organizational management, he understood the need of avoiding excessive mechanistic approach on the employees. Hence, he introduced both the Esprit de Corps and initiative principles to address both individual and groups need in an organization (Kwok, 2014, p. 97). The difference between Fayol and the current management theorist is that while the former viewed the principles within the context of logical company structure, the following views that as adaptive mechanisms that are used by organizations to change the employees' behaviours. The modern theorists hold that organization should create a platform that meets both its needs and those of its employees (Chandler, 1993, p. 11). One achievement by Fayol is his creation of 14 management principles that have been absorbed by modern organizations. Nevertheless, his principles have come under harsh criticisms because they are ineffective when an organization faces rapid change. Max Weber and Bureaucracy Theory Max Weber was an academician and his interest on organizational management was based on the authority structure. He was interested in establishing why employees in organizations had the tendency of obeying those in authority over themselves. He named his management theory as bureaucracy after the publication of his work titled, "The Theory of Social Economic Organization' in 1947 (Kotter, 1992, p. 113). He used the word bureaucracy to describe a type of organization and exists practically in every public and business enterprise to a lesser or larger extent. The difference between Fayol and Weber is that whereas the former focussed on management issues, the latter focussed on organizational structure. In his administrative management theory, Max Weber characterized his views on enterprise structure as shown below; Division of labour: Here, the responsibility and authority are clearly defined and treated as official duties that have to be fulfilled by the employees. Hierarchy of authority: In this type of organization, positions or offices are arranged in a hierarchical manner. There is a chain of command from the top most management level of the subordinate staff (Chowdhury, 2002, p. 23). Formal selection structure: Under regular selection employees are recruited and selected based on their qualifications by examining their training or educational level. Career managers structure: Manager is employed based on their field of qualification and is paid using fixed salaries. Formal rules: under the former rules, the management has the responsibility of administering strict rules and organizational control which are applied uniformly (French, 2007, p. 79). Based on the five organizational structures stated above, Weber came up with three types of legitimate authority applied in organizations namely; Traditional authority- here, authority in an organization is accepted based on custom and tradition. Charismatic authority- people are promoted to management level based on their loyalty and confidence. Rational Legal authority- people are given authority over others based on their position, and office held as guided by the company's rules and regulations. However, Weber maintained that people should difference between power and authority hence the use of legitimate authority. Power is defined as forcing people to perform certain duties by using either reward of strength. Whereas, authority is defined as exercising acceptable rules on the subordinates. Therefore, Weber explains legitimate authority as an act of exercising power within the acceptable limits on the employees (Chung, 2008, p. 113). The key features of Weber bureaucracy theory are as shown below: Rules continuously govern the functions of an organization There is a specified level of competence among the application authority There is a hierarchical exercise of authority. Personnel is appointed based on the technical qualifications. The management is separated from the company owners. Official positions are outlined in the organizational rules and the office holders to note controls the positions. Actions, rules, and decisions are recorded in writing forms. The above features govern the power to be exercised by the authority as dictated by the published practices and rules. Weber's bureaucratic management principle has been praised because it brings about efficiency in the application of authority to the subordinates (Davar, 2011, p. 45). Elton Mayo and Human Relation Theory The Human relation theory that was published by Elton Mayo in 1941 focusses on the aspects of work satisfaction and job components in employees perspectives. Mayo's theory popularly known as the Hawthorne Experiments are classified into three stages namely; Test Room Studies The experiment involved assessing the impact of single variables on the employees' performance. A section of women selected and divided into groups before being subjected to different in temperature, rest periods, working hours and the degree of illuminations. Their performance was recorded while working under these conditions (Cole, 1993, p. 56). The experiment found out that positive performance was not influenced by working conditions or incentives. However, factors such as esprit de corps that had been developed among the groups, and personal interest shown by the top management and the supervisors influenced the employees to perform. According to Mayo, when employees are subjected to situations develop their attitude and interest, then they are bound to perform (Davar, 2011, p. 127). Interviewing Studies The second study by Mayo interviewed over 21,000 employees working in the plantation to assess their attitude. Some of the variables that were tested include supervision, working conditions, and morale survey. However, it was difficult to identify factors that led to employees' dissatisfaction (Cole, 2011, p. 38). Observational Studies The study was used to assess who employees' attitudes change when working in groups. It was established that employees tend to develop different norms when working outside their departments. Therefore, the study stated that informal organization was important to employees' motivation. In summary, Mayo's in his management theory found out that employees are not only motivated by money but the management and supervisors have an important ro0le to play to increase their productivity and morale. Teamwork and group spirit are important to meet the employees' satisfaction and organizational goals (Brownlie, 2015, p. 78). Therefore, managers should understand why the employees behave in a certain manner. As well as identifying social and psychological factors that motivate them. Mayo's work became the basis of behavioral scientists such as Maslow, McGregor, and Argyris to conduct sophisticated studies on factors that motivate employees at their workplaces (Kwok, 2014, p. 76). Conclusion The three management theorists were concerned with different aspects of enterprise management. Fayol focussed on administrative management theory and came up with the fourteen principles of management as a guide to managers. Likewise, Max Weber with Bureaucracy theory focussed on the application of authority in the organization as a management tool. Lastly, mayo with his human relation theory focussed on how other factors part from money impact employees' performance. He established that management's interest had a major influence on the employees' behaviour. References List Appleby, R. C., 1991. Modern Business Administration. New York: Pitman. Brownlie, D., 2015. Management theory and practice: bridging the gap through multidisciplinary lenses. European Business Review, Vol. 20 (Iss: 6), pp. pp.461 - 470. Chandan, J. S., 2010. Organizational Behaviour (WBUT),. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing . Chandan, J. S., 2012. Management Theory and Practice,. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing . Chandler, A. D., 1993. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. New York: Belknap Press. Chowdhury, S., 2002. Organization 21C: Someday All Organizations Will Lead This Way. London: FT Press. Chung, R. K., 2008. Evolution of Philosophical Thoughts in Management. Class notes distributed . Cole, G., 2011. Management Theory and Practice. 7th Edition ed. Chicago: International Thomson Business Press. Cole, G. A., 1993. Management Theory and Practice. London: DP Publications Ltd. Davar, R. S., 2011. Personnel Management and Industrial Relations. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing . French, W. L., 2007. Human Resource Management. 6th Edition ed. s.l.:Houghton Mifflin. Kotter, J., 1992. Corporate Culture and Performance. New York: The Free Press. Kwok, A. C. F., 2014. The Evolution of Management Theories: A Literature Review. Issue 1, Volume 3( Issue 1). Lowe, D., 2013. Commercial Management: Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. Raczkowski, K., 2016. Public Management: Theory and Practice. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Wilkinson, A., 2006. Empowerment: theory and practice. Personnel Review, Vol. 27 (Iss: 1), pp. pp.40 - 56.

“Levi’s” by Marilyn Schiel Essay Example

â€Å"Levi’s† by Marilyn Schiel Essay A pair of handed down jeans in this book, by author Marilyn Schiel, represents freedom in the era of the 1950’s when women were becoming a larger part of the workforce. A pair of Levi’s jeans, handed down by her older brother represented more than just a simple piece of clothing. This gift meant she would be treated as an equal as far as gender roles were concerned. Schiel would still have to abide by her parent’s strict rules of staying close to home and using the training wheels, whenever she rode her bicycle, but that would change too, when she is finally able to remove the objects that labeled her as a child, not old enough to take on such a large responsibility of riding a bicycle that she could only ride with the aid of a crutch. When she falls off her bike and gets back on to try again, she demonstrates the willingness of a fighter; one that doesn’t give up easily because of small failures. She also proved that she didn’t need the crutch to achieve the goals she went after in life. Schiel makes one look at the way in which society has trained us. For so many years, women depended on men for financial support but now, wearing Levi’s jeans and riding a bicycle without training wheels represented that she was just as capable as a man, in her role in life. We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Levi’s† by Marilyn Schiel specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Levi’s† by Marilyn Schiel specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Levi’s† by Marilyn Schiel specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Marilyn Schiel displays a cultural change in America. She offers bits and pieces of information, concerning how she felt about growing up in a society that was rapidly changing, where women could at last share in a world that had once belonged solely to the male population. Not only does the author show how World War II changed the way women operated and functioned in America, she gave us a first hand look at her own feelings and how these important gender changing roles affected her, personally. The small feats that the author acted upon showed a self-propelled personality and a strong desire to become socially accepted as an individual who was quite capable of making her own decisions in growing up with a sense of self-reliance and knowing that she would be capable in taking care of herself and working in society and being fully accepted by the male population as an equal. This book shows a transformation in our society, from the old ways of women being settled in their roles of cooking and cleaning, to a new era in which they would be treated as intelligent women. This changing era marked a time of women going to work and acting in roles that once had belonged, solely to men. â€Å"Levi’s† was an item of clothing that marked a pivotal time in Marilyn Schiel’s life. From the first time she slid the old pair of pants on her body, she had taken on more than just a pair of pants, but a sense of equality that would guide her throughout her lifetime, and lead her to gaining respect as a strong woman who took a pair of jeans that had belonged to a male, and changed her way of thinking.

Free Essays on Documetation Problem In History

Documentation of any event (no matter how significant) is a very difficult task. It is human nature to have some bias and objectivity when looking at any situation. In order to accurately document an event we must be able to control these feelings. This, in my opinion, is an impossible task. No matter how hard we try, I do believe some objectivity will sneak through into our documentations. In the case of slavery in the United States in the time period before the Civil War I believe this problem was magnified by the very nature of the event being documented. This paper will focus on why I believe the documentation of slavery in the U.S. is very skewed. Slavery has existed since the beginning of time. It is common practice to use all means possible to keep slaves from joining together and revolting. One method used is denial of education. In the case of the African slaves brought to America these people were very uneducated. The majority could not read nor write. American slave masters used this to their advantage. Even after many generations of slaves had passed slave masters still were able to keep the vast majority of them illiterate by denying them any education at all. What this created was a very one-sided account of the happenings of that period of time. When we read history, especially the early history of slavery in the United States, what we are mainly getting are accounts based on slave owners’ and educated white men’s’ documentation of the events. There is very little input by the slaves themselves. This inherently causes these pieces of history to be skewed towards the white man’s view. As we go along the timeline there eventually are more and more educated slaves and white men; who tell the stories of the slaves as had been told to them by the slave. However, we still cannot get rid of the fact that the majority of the information had to come from the white men of the time. Besides this example, there are ... Free Essays on Documetation Problem In History Free Essays on Documetation Problem In History Documentation of any event (no matter how significant) is a very difficult task. It is human nature to have some bias and objectivity when looking at any situation. In order to accurately document an event we must be able to control these feelings. This, in my opinion, is an impossible task. No matter how hard we try, I do believe some objectivity will sneak through into our documentations. In the case of slavery in the United States in the time period before the Civil War I believe this problem was magnified by the very nature of the event being documented. This paper will focus on why I believe the documentation of slavery in the U.S. is very skewed. Slavery has existed since the beginning of time. It is common practice to use all means possible to keep slaves from joining together and revolting. One method used is denial of education. In the case of the African slaves brought to America these people were very uneducated. The majority could not read nor write. American slave masters used this to their advantage. Even after many generations of slaves had passed slave masters still were able to keep the vast majority of them illiterate by denying them any education at all. What this created was a very one-sided account of the happenings of that period of time. When we read history, especially the early history of slavery in the United States, what we are mainly getting are accounts based on slave owners’ and educated white men’s’ documentation of the events. There is very little input by the slaves themselves. This inherently causes these pieces of history to be skewed towards the white man’s view. As we go along the timeline there eventually are more and more educated slaves and white men; who tell the stories of the slaves as had been told to them by the slave. However, we still cannot get rid of the fact that the majority of the information had to come from the white men of the time. Besides this example, there are ...

Plagiarism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Plagiarism - Essay Example one else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without acknowledg ­ing its source (Council of Writing Program Administrators, 2003). Nelson and Stepchyshyn have defined plagiarism as the use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as ones own original work (Stepchyshyn & Nelson, 2007). Plagiarism is not a new concept, passing off others’ writings and ideas as one’s own existed even before the internet came into existence. However, the easy access of a variety of materials has caused an increase in plagiarism and it has now become a great cause for concern for universities and academic institutions across the world. About two decades back, plagiarism did not have severe punishments or consequences. However, in today’s scenario plagiarism is very serious offence and can have numerous consequences that include expulsion from the academic institution or a job. Apart from that, the most serious consequence is that the loss of credibility of a writer. One key reason why students indulge in plagiarism could be lack of awareness. As Evan (2000) says, everyone seems to know that plagiarism is wrong, including those who commit the offence, but few know how to completely define it. Many students do not understand that even using their own previous works without citation is plagiarism. This increases the instances of unintentional or accidental plagiarism, where students are not aware of what qualifies as plagiarism. For some students, reproducing large chunks of others’ texts is a way of signalling they know of the existence of this information (Ryan, 2000). Therefore, it is clear that lack of proper awareness is one reason why there is an increase in plagiarism. Ensuring proper awareness and making the students familiar with the various aspects of plagiarism can make the students more conscious and thereby reducing the cases of unintentional plagiarism. Teaching appropriate

Final Ethics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final Ethics - Assignment Example This is to mean that altruistic individuals live for the sake of the good of others. As seen in the research conducted by Albee (2014), the author also explains that individuals have the obligation to act not on their own needs but on the needs of others. On the other hand, utilitarianism works on the grounds that a good act is one that increases the satisfaction of individuals as well as the society at large (Albee, 2014). However, the individuals in question are expected to lead a happy life. A maximization of utility is the basis on utilitarianism such as individuals seeking to lead a successful life, having stability in life, minimize chances of them suffering (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). This means that the ends substantiate the means for the case of utilitarianism. The proponents of utilitarianism include Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. One of the major differences between altruism and utilitarianism is that altruism does not advocate for any form of individualism while utilitarianism advocates for general good, but the individual can to satisfy their needs. Utilitarianism produces happiness while altruism focuses on reducing any chance that unhappiness may occur in individuals (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). Altruism and utilitarianism are similar in that both advocate for happiness as the end result of all actions of humans. Both ethical perspectives have some element of morality in them. The two also have some form of pain and satisfaction after an action (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). The case of altruism can be well explained in the case of volunteering in a job as opposed to getting a job that would be well paying. When an individual forego a well-paying job to go for a volunteer job such as planting trees or caring for the elderly or sick patients, this may be termed as altruism since the individual has opted to sacrifice

Preventing hypoxemia in closed head injury Essay

Preventing hypoxemia in closed head injury - Essay Example In closed head injury, brain is susceptible to further injury caused by cerebral edema since the brain is confined in a calvarium and therefore, cannot expand. Cerebral edema is the accumulation of excess water into the intra and extra cellular spaces of the brain (Cerebral Edema, 2003), and is most often encountered in patients with brain injury. Cerebral edema can cause a lethal effect, which includes cerebral ischemia due to compromised regional or global cerebral blood flow (CBF) and intracranial compartmental shifts due to intracranial pressure gradients that result in compression of vital brain structures (Ahmed, 2007). Thus, it is the primary goal in medicine to manage cerebral edema to maintain regional and cerebral blood flow in order to meet the metabolic requirements of the brain as well as prevent secondary neuronal injury brought about by cerebral ischemia. Tegtmeyer (1998) noted that in order to minimize secondary injuries brought about by closed head injury, priorities of treatment must be geared towards airway, breathing, and circulation. Airway must be maintained to facilitate oxygen delivery to the brain to prevent cascading of secondary injuries. During the injury, the cerebral perfusion pressure drops off rapidly as the blood goes down, and brain volume increases with swelling and edema. Cytotoxic edema which results from closed head injury must be prevented to further damage the brain. And in doing so, hypercarbia and hypoxemia must be corrected. As indicated in the University of Oxford database (2008), secondary brain injury may have been caused by inadequate brain perfusion, and therefore, avoiding and treating hypoxia, hypercarbia, and hypertension are of utmost importance. Increased morbidity and mortality are associated with hypoxemia, hypercarbia, and hypotension in patients with severe head trauma. In line with this, bra in injury causing

An Exegesis Of Colossians 3 12 17 Religion Essay

An Exegesis Of Colossians 3 12 17 Religion Essay Introduction In society there are innumerous encounters and engagements between Christians and non-Christian daily, some of these encounters are religious in nature the others are secular. The challenge to the Christian is to continuously exercise the commandment or requirements that God revealed via the Prophet Micah to do what is right, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your God (Micah 6:8, NLT).  [1]  The elements for living a holy life are not difficult and they are not exhaustive; however, because of so many different interpretations available to the Christian readers, congregants and students, there is a high probability that confusion will reign in the minds of many. There are myriad teachings available to the Christian that are full of error, personal interpretations, non-Christian agendas and false teachings to name a few, that will lead to inappropriate application of biblical principles that will not properly represent Christ in the Christian ambassadorship to each other and t o the world. Following this further, living a holy life is a requirement for all Christians and the instruction for how to live holy is imperative knowledge for the Christian. Colossians 3:12-17 is an excellent source of instructions for Christian living. The passage asserts that God chose Christians to be a holy people. It stands to reason that He authored provisions to help Christians reach that goal. The passage presents several principles for instructing the Christian how to exhibit him or herself as a representative of Christ. The exegesis of this passage will disclose if the principles are applicable to the contemporary audience as it were to the original audience or if there is time driven deviation that renders it less impactful for modern application. Setting/Historical Background In order to comprehend the context of Colossians 3:12-17 it is important to have background information for the period in which it was written. Pauls penned intervention had to reflect his understanding of the Colossians worldview. It was a worldview that was eclectic and problematic. Its multiculturalism created a challenge for a church leader who was not versed and or educated in true Christian doctrines and its applicability. Paul is the author of the letter to the Colossians, he has the authority to write an account of holy living because of his conversion and life experiences. His history prior to his conversion on the road to Damascus and his experiences that trained him as an apostle to the Gentiles equipped him with the wisdom and knowledge for teaching and instructing. His pre-apostolic days begin with him being born into and raised in a prominent Jewish-Roman family. He is from the tribe of Benjamin which is where he obtained his name Saul, but his Roman name is Paul. He was circumcised on the eight day in accordance with the law; he was afforded the opportunity to be educated in the Greco-Roman rhetoric as well as Hebrew.  [2]   Paul was a student of Gamaliel (Acts 5:34) who was the grandson of Hillel and one of seven scholars to obtain the title Rabban which means our master.  [3]   The church in Colossae was composed of Jews and Gentiles which created a culture of syncretism, mixing Jewish legalism, with Greek speculation and the mysticism of the Orient.  [4]   The city of Colossae was a major city located on the Lycus River with accessibility to trade routes. It was downgraded to a secondary city by the first century A.D. Colossae was a neighboring city to Laodicea and Hierapolis; each city was approximately 10 miles from Colossae.  [5]  The church at Colossae received the gospel from Epaphras, a convert from the church in Ephesus; he urged Paul, who was in prison in Ephesus, to write a letter to Colossae to address heretical issues that were plaguing the church in Colossae regarding its battle with heresy; which was creating disruption in churches all over the western portion of Asia Minor.  [6]   Although, Paul never visited the city of Colossae, he was aware of the heretical spirit that swept the region. Like its neighbors, Colossae was infiltrated by a mixture of pagan doctrines influenced by pre-Gnosticism that regarded the body as evil to promote spiritual/non-material items as superior human form, known as mystical wisdom. The pagan influence led to questions about Jesus having a physical body as an ordinary man, error in esteeming angels, and proclaimed that salvation was the result of knowledge rather than faith.  [7]   There is contention that Paul wrote the letter to the Colossians from Rome and that it was delivered to the church by Tychicus during the early 60s. This is supported by those who refer to 4:7-8 as the reason for choosing Rome over Ephesus and Tychicus over Epaphras.  [8]   Analysis of Colossians 3:12-17 The Colossians comfort with pluralism subjected them to vulnerability in achieving solidarity in understanding and incorporating the doctrines of their new Christian faith. Their failure to comprehend the true essence of Christ and his personage as well as exclusiveness of Christianity revealed their need for intervention from one of authority in the doctrines such as an apostle in the faith. Therefore, Pauls letter to the Church of Colossae was necessary to substantiate the tenets of the faith and to emphasize as well as educate the new Christians regarding the expectations of their lives as Christian. Paul is the apostle to the Gentiles and it is incumbent upon him to respond to the needs of the Colossians as they struggle to manifest their faith and its tenets according to their understanding. Pauls letter is an instructional guide as well as being comprised of words of encouragement. Chapter 3 and verses 12 through 17 describes to the new Christians how they are new creatures in Christ. He reaffirms that Christ is deity in bodily form and the supreme head of the church (1:15-23). He also warns against false teaching and calls for the rejection of it. He further instructs them on how to live holy (Chapter 3). More specifically, Colossians 3:12-17 concentrates on two main ideas; one idea focuses on how to live holy as an individual and as a member of the body of Christ; and the other focuses on holy living as an individual and as a collective member of the body of Christ. The tools used to explore passage 3:12-17 are the King James Version (KJV), the New International Version (NIV), the New International Readers Version (NIRV), The Message (MSG) and the New Living Translation (NLT) Bibles, along with The New Analytical Greek Lexicon (The Lexicon), The Greek English Interlinear New Testament (The Interlinear) and Strongs Strongest Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible (Strongs) with various commentaries. Colossians 3:12-14 Put on therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, bowels of mercies, kindness, humbleness of mind, meekness, longsuffering; forbearing one another, and forgiving one another, if any man have a quarrel against any: even as Christ forgave you, so also do ye. And above all these things put on charity, which is the bond of perfection. In verse 12 holy living entails more than a confession or conversion experience, it regards a change in lifestyle. The Interlinear uses put on (endysasthe) in the active continuous form emphasizing that Christians must continuously display Gods characteristics which manifests his holiness. They are manifested as mercy, kindness, humbleness, meekness, and longsuffering. The Message says, Dress in the wardrobe God picked out for you. Its rendition offers that these characteristics are not natural human characteristics; therefore, it requires action on the part of the individual and is attainable with the guidance of God. In the KJV, the word bowels (splagchna) are used; The Lexicon defines it as the heart or affections of the heart, meaning these qualities must come from within. By separating the characteristics by commas the KJV, NIV and the NLT indicate that each of the characteristics is part of a whole. However, the NIVR presents them in multiple sentences to demonstrate them as de finitive commands. The NLT renders that the Christian should demonstrate holy living by being clothed in tenderhearted mercy which is a translation for compassion (oiktirmou), kindness(chrestoteta), humility(tapeinophrosyne), gentleness for meekness(prauteta), and patience as longsuffering(makrothymian); these are acts that God has demonstrated towards us. Bruce Buoton describes the characteristics of tenderhearted mercy, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience as imitations of Gods acts towards man.  [9]   In verse 13 holy living is explored further, here all Christians are required to forgive one another because Christ has forgiven (charixomenoi) them. Failure to forgive others whom God has forgiven results in suffering. Robert E. Wall expressed that the holy response (to any offense) prompted by grace is to forgive. . .We forgive because we are already forgiven, we secure Gods forgiveness by forgiving others.  [10]  Forgiving allows the Christian to tolerate the offenses of others and to act in their behalf for their benefit. Forgiveness is essential in Christian growth, fellowship and manifestation. It is one of the characteristics of God that allows Christians to imitate him without necessarily displaying overt actions. The act of forgiving is a sign that the Christian is maturing as a Christian. In verse 14 love is exhorted above all the other characteristics and is determined to be the virtue that bonds all the characteristics together. It is impossible to live a holy life without love, The MSG expresses, And regardless of what else you put on, wear love. It is your all purpose garment. Never be without it. All of the aforementioned translations agree on loves ability to make the other virtues possible, for instance the NLT interprets the verse as, Above all, clothe yourselves with love, which binds us all together in perfect unity. The Greek word for bond (sydesmos) in The Lexicon is described as bundle or connection. It is used in the same way in Ephesians 4:3 make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace (NIV). Love is the adhesiveness that unites all the virtues; it is joined in significance by the virtue of peace. Colossians 3:15-17 And let the peace of God rule in your hearts, to the which also ye are called in one body: and be ye thankful. Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all wisdom; teaching and admonishing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts to the Lord. And whatsoever ye do in word or deed, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God and the Father by him. When the Christian has adopted the characteristics in verses 12-14 and internalized them, a notable change should be evident by familiar observers. Holiness should be readily manifested and perceivable. One of the key words in verse 15 is the word rule. The Interlinear, shows rule is derived from let arbitrate (brabeutw) in all of the translations besides The MSG. The MSG converts the Greek into in tune. . .in step with each other. Pauls familiarity with the word, in accordance with The Lexicon, would have been umpire, or someone who governs a conflict. The Colossians would have understood keeping the peace as tantamount to resolving conflicts.  [11]   The MSG emphasis is the body of Christ unified (swma(i))as it addresses the meaning of the verse. It emphasizes every collective decision and action that comes from the community will have the character of peace if all members stay in tune and/or in step with each other.  [12]   Furthermore, verse 15 exhorts Christians to be thankful (euchiaristoi) or mindful of the benefits  [13]  if being part of the body of Christ. Strongs Concordance clarifies thankful as in mind and attitude which enhances the spiritual well-being concerted with the physical well-being of the individual and the body of Christ.  [14]   Verse 16 moves the reader or Christian to the command to teach and admonish one another in wisdom (sophia) which has both divine and secular connotations, according to Strong; however, Pauls inclination was a reference to Christian enlightenment as found in 1 Corinthians 12:8.  [15]  There is variance between The MSG which denotes this virtue or command to mean use common sense, whereas, the NLT state Teach and counsel one another with all the wisdom he gives. Verse 16 iterates to Christians to exercise the virtues of holy living and to continuously communicate that to one another. The emphasis is that when God enlightens a person that person is qualified to exercise authority to teach and admonish others. Each member of the body of Christ is called to model the holiness demonstrated by Christ. In order to imitate his model the individual must have the Spirit of God residing inside of him, moreover, the Spirit of God can only dwell in the individual if the that individual lives a life of holiness. The Interlinear text uses let dwell (enoiketw) in the imperfect tense in verse sixteen. It is used to demonstrate that Christs spirit within the heart first occurred when the individual accepted Christ as Lord; it is an action that is present and ongoing. The other aspect of verse 16 includes the singing of psalms, hymns and spiritual songs. The MSG says sing your hearts out to God whereas the NIV, NIRV and NLT render the concept as to sing with thankfulness. The KJV links both sections of verse 16 as a single action, meaning that the singing and teaching are synonymous to praise and admonishing. Also, the singing of the songs, spirituals and hymns with joy and thanksgiving display to others that the Spirit of Christ dwells within. When Christs spirit dwell within the Christian then Christ rules the heart and life and the person is authorized to teach and admonish because it is accommodating the Spirit of Christ. Verse 17 mandates that whatever and whichever virtue the Christian manifests, do it in the name of the Lord Jesus with thanks to God and the Father through him. The primary responsibility of living a holy life is for the glory of God. In concert, the verses 12-17 equip the Christian with guidance and instructions to live a holy life within the ability of the Christians and in response to Pauls exhortation in Romans 12:1-2. Applications The worldview has crept into the church and some of the moral authority of the church has come into question because of the level of tolerance experienced by the church today. Tolerance is not a negative thing, but there are mandates such as notable in the Ten Commandments that restricts some tolerations. The behaviors exhibited by a large number of highly visible Christians (not just renowned ministers) in their lives denote that holy living has been compromised. There are denominations that allow clear abominations to exercise the office of pastors and ministers, such as ordaining homosexual ministers and subjecting Christians in need of guidance, teaching and admonishing to their authority. Equally compromising is the congregations that outwardly support and accept this deviancy. The modern society in First World countries is replete with narcissism, public acceptance of vulgarity (as demonstrated in music and audio-visual media)and Christian lifestyle has become compartmentalized. Applying the principles or virtues found in the passage of Colossians 3:12-17 in todays society should be exceptionally easy because of the communications capabilities that are available such as the internet, satellites, cell phones and public forums. These same forums are used to counter the work of the church emphatically. The Church has to do as Paul and the other apostles and early Christians did in building up the faith and the church. It must espouse it doctrines at every opportunity and do not settle for a small corner to shout from. It must begin within the body of Christ first. The church must hold Christians accountable for their behaviors that are compromised and encourage them in the behaviors that exemplify the virtues found in the passage. Heads of households must take the responsibility of their family religious education in the home environment and not allow worship and services to be a Sunday event only. Holiness must become a lifestyle; it must be exhorted within the body of Christ community first and then missioned to the rest of the world. Music must be acceptable, television and other media must adhere to family values by presenting wholesome entertainment. Finally, each Christian has to develop the attitude to teach one, reach one so that no Christian is left behind. The children must be taught Christian values at home without compromise. Most importantly, Christian hearts must be governed by Christ and honor given to God. There needs to be a campaign to teach and encourage each Christian to exert the virtues of mercy, kindness, humbleness of mind, meekness, longsuffering/patience, forgiveness and love. Each church should have an education plan to initiate and sustain such a campaign. Conclusion The Bible is composed of mandates, laws and principles for Christian living that is sometimes explicitly clear such as You must not murder. (Exodus 20:13), and some not so evident such as And let the peace that comes from Christ rule in your hearts. (Colossians 3:15). There are several translations of the Bible that create debate within the Christian community and sometimes result in controversial applications in some aspects, such as Exodus 20:13 rendered in the New Living Translation as You shall not murder. whereas in the King James Version it is rendered Thou shall not kill. The impact of the two different wordings has affected the secular arena as well as the religious one. Abortions, military wartime service and the death penalty are three of the subjects associated with controversy regarding both editions of the verse. Avoiding confusion and controversy is not always possible, there are passages in the Bible that are not just principles but also instruct the Christian how to live. A law or situation is not necessarily transferrable from the context known to the original audience to the conditions and situations in modern times; some applications are situational and time sensitive. The instructions are clear and applicable to life situations for the environment of the original audience or for the contemporary audience. Sometimes they are applicable to both audiences but there must be some parallel but not necessarily the same conditions present. The examination of the words of Paul in Colossians 3:12-17 reveals there are instructions that are clear and applicable for holy living and they migrate across the time spectrum from the original audience through the contemporary audience. Living a holy life is mandatory for Christians and necessary to please God. It is the Christian responsibility to present God to the world, the passage aforementioned provides instructions and guidance for execution. How the Christian lives should reflect what he or she believes in accordance with the conditions set forth by the applicable Scriptures. The Christian walk should parallel the Christian talk. As a member of the body of Christ the modern Christian incurs the responsibility to teach and admonish fellow Christians as needed. He and she have the advantage of hindsight as well as the principles denoted in the passage 3:12-17 to aid and assist their growth and development as productive Christians with the same urgency and proficiency of the early Christians. Appendix Block Diagram Colossians 3:12-17 (NIV) 12Therefore, as Gods chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. 13Bear with each other and forgive whatever grievances you may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. 14And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity. Therefore As Gods chosen people Holy and dearly loved Clothe yourselves With compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. Bear with each other And Forgive whatever grievances You may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. And Put on love over all these virtues Which binds them all together in perfect unity. 15Let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, since as members of one body you were called to peace. And be thankful. 16Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom, and as you sing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs with gratitude in your hearts to God. 17And whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him. Let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts Members of one body (Since As) You were called to peace. And Be thankful. Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly As you sing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs With gratitude in your hearts to God. And Whatever you do (Whether) in word or deed Do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus Giving thanks to God The Father through Him. Sunday School Lesson for Adults Colossians 3:12-17 Focus verse: Colossians 3:13 Introduction Forgiveness -As for volunteers to read each verse. -Give an illustration of a marital event that requires forgiveness although it is very difficult to do. Why do we forgive? Definition of forgiveness Explanation Discuss focus verse and Gods command to forgive Inquiry- Have class name times/situations that they have done something wrong and how they felt. Bearing with one another/ Ways to forgive. Explanation We are to forgive others because God forgives us refer back to verse. Explain how the husband is a reflection of God and wife is a reflection of the sinner. Demonstration- Two class members will act out scenarios followed by brief discussion of the incidents: -inappropriate conversations with the opposite sex -meeting someone other than the spouse for friendly night out Application- Have class name situations in which they/others should be forgiven and how to do so. Reiterate the passage that emphasizes that God forgave us first. Illustration- Finish story with husband forgiving wife due to her sincere apology. Re-emphasize how God forgives us and we should forgive others. Conclusion We are to seek forgiveness and forgive others because God forgives us. -Review of passage focus verse. Allow for questions/comments. -Prayer asking God to forgive us for our sins and help to forgive others. -Song.